Обсуждение:Халиф

Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān

Халиф (974 слова) На арабском языке Халифа-это титул, принятый главой мусульманского государства (см. "община" и "общество в Коране") после смерти пророка Мухаммеда в 11/632 году. Этот термин встречается в Коране дважды в единственном числе и семь раз во множественном числе, как халадиф или хулафах, и некоторые из его вербальных проявлений (в частности, Халафа и истахлафа) семантически очень тесно связаны с ним. В курдских текстах этого термина мало что подготовляет к его политически и теологически заряженному значению. Безусловно, его наиболее распространенное значение в Коране - "преемник, замена, замена, Заместитель", что особенно ясно в словесных и именных множественных числах. Основная идея состоит в том, что — как неоднократно показывала человеческая история, и как она покажет в будущем — Бог предупреждает народ (см. предупреждение), когда они сбиваются с пути (QV), Бог уничтожает их и заменяет их другими людьми, которые повинуются Божьим посланникам (см. посланник), поклоняются (QV) ему, действуют морально и, следовательно, вознаграждаются, наследуя землю и Писание своих предшественников (QV). 6:133, 165; 7:69, 74, 129; 10:14, 73; 11:57; 24:55; 27:62; 35:39; Смотрите также истории наказаний; поколения). В этом смысле, этот термин, разумеется, тесно связано с такими терминами, как adhhaba (разрушить; например, вопрос 4:133), awratha (завещать, например, вопрос 33:27) и istabdala (для замены, например, вопрос 47:38). Второе, более редкое и филологически менее очевидное значение термина - "житель, поселенец на земле"."Это значение наиболее очевидно в q 2: 30, Где Бог говорит ангелам (QV.):" я создаю / создаю на земле халифу...", явно имея в виду Адама (см.); это также подразумевается в q 14: 14, где глагол sakana, жить, связывает его с первым значением верующего народа, заменяющего неверующего (см. Третье значение имеет некоторые политические и юридические последствия; это «тот, кто осуществляет власть (см."Это ясно только в одном стихе, q 38: 26, где пророк Давид (QV.) обращается так: «о Давид, мы сделали тебя халифом на земле; поэтому суди справедливо между людьми и не следуй желаниям, чтобы они не сбили тебя с пути Божьего.» Ранние мусульманские экзегеты, которые были филологически ориентированы и имели некоторый доступ к иудейским и христианским знаниям, то есть Исраилийят, считали «преемственность и замещение» главным значением термина Халифа и его родственных элементов и применяли его в различной степени почти ко всем его явлениям, интерпретация которых привела их к большим трудностям с толкованием явления Адама (см. Писание и Коран). С другой стороны, они действительно упоминали два других значения этого термина, хотя, казалось, были склонны связывать их, иногда искусственно, с главным значением: преемственность. Что касается стиха об Адаме, то, по-видимому, существовал общий смысл, что этот термин относится не только к Адаму, но и ко всему человечеству, т. е. И наоборот, большинство экзегетов рассматривали стих Давида как относящийся только к Давиду, а не к «людям во власти» вообще. Поэтому можно сказать, что в период Омейядов экзегеты не видели связи между курдским термином Халифа и политико-религиозной реальностью учреждения халифата. Эта тенденция начала меняться примерно в середине II / VIII века, когда появилась более полная интерпретация. Начиная с намека Аль-Судди (ум. 128/745; ср. Thabarī, Tafsīr, xxiii, 151: "[Бог] сделал [Давида] царем (маллакаху) на земле») это стало более обобщенным в комментарии Суфьяна Аль-Таври (ум. 161/ 778) к q 24:55: верующие, которые сменяют других на Земле, являются правителями/людьми, ответственными (al - wulāt, см. Его Tafsīr, 185). Ко времени великого синтезатора мусульманской экзегезы Аль-Табари (ум. 310/923), стандартная суннитская экзегетическая позиция привела к полному слиянию между курдской Халифой и главой исламского халифата . Таким образом, на первое вхождение термина в Адам стих, и после указания филологическое значение этого термина в качестве преемника или замена, Аль-Ṭabarī добавляет: «следовательно, верховная власть(аль - Султана Аль-aʿẓam) называется „ Халифа“ он преуспевает тот, кто предшествовал ему на смену ему в принятии ведение дел, таким образом, стать его заменителем» (Ṭabarī, Тафсир, я, 199). Эта стандартная суннитская позиция настаивает на том, что титул «халифа» для главы мусульманского государства является аббревиатурой более длинной (и в конечном итоге громоздкой) формулы халифат Расул Аллах (преемник посланника Бога), которую принял первый мусульманский халиф Абу Бакр (QV.; р. 11-3/632-4), а не халифат Аллах (наместник Бога). Хотя эта последняя формула действительно использовалась большинством халифов Омейядов и хаббасидов, она так и не получила легитимации в исламской политической теории.

Caliph (974 words) In Arabic, khalīfa is the title adopted by the head of the Muslim polity (see community ¶ and society in the qurʾān) ever since the death of the prophet Muḥammad in 11/632. The term occurs in the Qurʾān twice in the singular and seven times in the plural, as khalāʾif or khulafāʾ, and some of its verbal occurrences (particularly khalafa and istakhlafa) are semantically very closely connected with it. There is little in the qurʾānic occurrences of the term that prepares for its politically and theologically charged meaning. By far its most prevalent meaning in the Qurʾān is «successor, substitute, replacement, deputy» which is particularly clear in the verbal and nominal plural occurrences. The basic notion is that — as human history has repeatedly shown, and as it will show in the future — God warns a people (see warning) when they go astray (q.v.), God destroys them and replaces them with another people who obey God’s messengers (see messenger), worship (q.v.) him, act morally and are consequently rewarded by inheriting the land and the scripture of their predecessors (q 6:133, 165; 7:69, 74, 129; 10:14, 73; 11:57; 24:55; 27:62; 35:39; see also punishment stories; generations). In this sense, the term is, understandably, closely associated with such terms as adhhaba (to destroy; e.g. q 4:133), awratha (to bequeath; e.g. q 33:27) and istabdala (to replace; e.g. q 47:38). The second, rarer and philologically less obvious meaning of the term is «inhabitant, settler on earth.» This meaning is most evident in q 2:30 where God says to the angels (q.v.): «I am making/creating on earth a khalīfa…,» clearly meaning Adam (see adam and eve); it is also implied in q 14:14 where the verb sakana, to dwell, connects it with the first meaning of a believing nation replacing a non-believing one (see belief and unbelief). The third meaning has some political and juridical implications; it is «one who exercises authority (q.v.).» It is clear in only one verse, q 38:26, where the prophet David (q.v.) is addressed thus: «O David, ¶ we have made you a khalīfa on earth; so judge justly between people and follow not desires lest they should thwart you from God’s path.» The early Muslim exegetes who were philologically oriented and had some access to Jewish and Christian lore, i.e. Isrāʾīliyyāt, considered «succession and substitution» the main meaning of the term khalīfa and its cognates, and applied it with varying degrees to almost all of its occurrences, an interpretation that led them into great difficulties with the exegesis of the Adam occurrence (see scripture and the qurʾān). On the other hand, they did indeed mention the other two meanings of the term although they seemed inclined to link them, sometimes artificially, with the main meaning: succession. With regard to the Adam verse, a general sense seems to have existed that the term refers not only to Adam but also to all humanity, i.e. the children of Adam. Conversely, most exegetes considered the David verse as referring to David alone and not to «people in authority» in general. It can therefore be said that during the Umayyad period, the exegetes made no connection between the qurʾānic term khalīfa and the politico-religious reality of the institution of the caliphate. This tendency began to change about the middle of the second/eighth century when a more comprehensive interpretation started to appear. Beginning with a hint by al-Suddī (d. 128/745; cf. Ṭabarī, Tafsīr, xxiii, 151: «[God] made [David] king (mallakahu) on earth») this became more generalized in Sufyān al-Thawrī's (d. 161/ 778) commentary on q 24:55: The believers who succeed others on earth are the governors/the people in charge (al- wulāt, see his Tafsīr, 185). By the time of the great synthesizer of Muslim exegesis al-Ṭabarī (d. 310/923), the standard Sunnī exegetical position had created a complete merger between the qurʾānic khalīfa and the head ¶ of the Islamic caliphate. Thus, at the first occurrence of the term, in the Adam verse, and after indicating the philological meaning of the term as successor or replacement, al-Ṭabarī adds, «hence the supreme authority(al- sulṭān al-aʿẓam) is called „ khalīfa“ for he succeeds the one who preceded him, replacing him in taking charge of matters, thereby being his substitute» (Ṭabarī, Tafsīr, i, 199). This standard Sunnī position insists that the title «khalīfa» for the head of the Muslim polity is an abbreviation of the longer (and eventually cumbersome) formula khalīfat rasūl Allāh (successor of the messenger of God) which the first Muslim Caliph, Abū Bakr (q.v.; r. 11-3/632-4) adopted, not of khalīfat Allāh (viceregent of God). Although this last formula was indeed used by most Umayyad and ʿAbbāsid caliphs, it never received legitimation in Islamic political theory.

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Primary

Muqātil, Tafsīr

Sufyān al-Thawrī, Tafsīr

Ṭabarī, Tafsīr

Secondary

P. Crone and M. Hinds, God’s caliph, Cambridge 1986 (a new interpretation of Tyan’s thesis)

R. Paret, Signification coranique de ḫalīfa et d’autres dérivés de la racine ḫalafa, in si 31 (1970), 211-7

W. al-Qādī, The term «khalīfa» in early exegetical literature, in wi 28 (1988), 392—411 (esp. for the views of pre-ʿAbbāsid exegetes; with bibliography on p. 392, n. 1)

E. Tyan, Institutions du droit public musulman. i. Le califat, Paris 1956 (history of the title itself and the development of the institution)

W.M. Watt, God’s caliph. Qurʾānic interpretations and Umayyad claims, in C.E. Bosworth (ed.), Iran and Islam in memory of the late Vladimir Minorsky, Edinburgh 1971, 565-74

Cite this page

Kadi, Wadad, «Caliph», in: Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC. Consulted online on 07 January 2017 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00068>

Dictionary of Qurʾanic Usage

خ/ل/ف   kh–l–f

back, backside, behind, in the rear; to stay behind, to be put behind; to delay, to be a straggler; to replace, to succeed, to be appointed as successor; a ruler, representative, governor; an offshoot, a son, a generation, a follower; to differ, to be different, to be contrary; to fail to keep a promise, to let down, to alternate. Of this root, 23 forms occur 127 times in the Qur’an: خَلَفَ khalafa five times; خُلِّفَ khullifa once; يُخَالِفُ yukhālif twice; أَخْلَفَ ʾakhlafa 13 times; تُخْلَفُ tukhlaf once; يَتَخَلَّفُ yatakhallaf once; اخْتَلَفَ ʾikhtalafa 33 times; and اخْتُلِفَ ʾikhtulifa twice; اسْتَخْلَفَ ʾistakhlafa five times; خَلْفٌ khalf twice; خَالِفُون khālifūn once; خِلاَفٌ khilāf six times; خِلْفَةٌ khilfatun once; خَوَالِفُ khawālif twice; خَلِيفَةٌ khalıfatun twice; خَلاَئِفُ khalāʾif four times; خُلَفَاءٌ khulafāʾ three times; مُخَلَّفُون mukhallafūn four times; مُخْلِفٌ mukhlif once; اخْتِلاَفٌ ʾikhtilāf seven times; مُخْتَلِفٌ mukhtalif eight times; مُخْتَلِفُون mukhtalifūn twice and مُسْتَخْلَفُون mustakhlafūn 11 times.

خَلَفَ khalafa u I [v. intrans.] to succeed, to follow, to come after (19:59) فَخَلَفَ مِنْ بَعْدِهِمْ خَلْفٌ أَضَاعُوا الصَّلاَةَ وَاتَّبَعُوا الشَّهَوَاتِ but there came after them successors neglecting prayer and following lusts II [v. trans.] 1 to act as deputy, to replace (7:142) وَقَالَ مُوسَى لأَِخِيهِ هَارُونَ اخْلُفْنِي فِى قَوْمِي and Moses said to his brother Aaron, ‘Take my place among my people’ 2 to act or do something during someone’s absence (7:150) وَلَمَّا رَجَعَ مُوسَى إِلَى قَوْمِهِ غَضْبَانَ أَسِفًا قَالَ بِئْسَمَا خَلَفْتُمُونِي مِنْ بَعْدِي and when Moses returned to his people, angry and grieved, he said, ‘How foul your conduct has been after my departure!’ (or, ‘What a foul thing you have put in my place after me!’).

خُلِّفَ khullifa [pass. of v. II خَلَّفَ khallafa] to be left behind (9:118) وَعَلَى الثَّلاَثَةِ الَّذِينَ خُلِّفُوا and to the three who were left behind.

يُخَالِفُ yukhālif [imperf. of v. III خَالَفَ khālafa, trans.] 1 [with prep. إلى] to act or do something contrarily to someone after having forbidden such an act to him; to impact on something behind someone’s back (11:88) وَمَا أُرِيدُ أَنْ أُخَالِفَكُمْ إِلَى مَا أَنْهَاكُمْ عَنْهُ and I do not want to do, behind your backs, that which I have forbidden you to do 2 [with prep. عن] to go back on, fail to keep/obey (24:63) فَلْيَحْذَرِ الَّذِينَ يُخَالِفُونَ عَنْ أَمْرِهِ and let those beware who go back on His (or, the Prophet’s) command.

أَخْلَفَ ʾakhlafa [v. IV, trans.] 1 to go back on, to break or to fail to keep (e.g. a promise) (20:87) قَالُوا مَا أَخْلَفْنَا مَوْعِدَكَ بِمَلْكِنَا they said, ‘We did not break our word to you of our own accord’ 2 to act contrary to, to let down, to fail (14:22) إِنَّ اللَّهَ وَعَدَكُمْ وَعْدَ الْحَقِّ وَوَعَدْتُكُمْ فَأَخْلَفْتُكُمْ God surely promised you a true promise, I promised you, and failed you 3 to compensate or replace something spent or lost, to reward something spent (34:39) وَمَا أَنْفَقْتُمْ مِنْ شَيْءٍ فَهُوَ يُخْلِفُهُ whatever you give in alms He will reward it.

تُخْلَفُ tukhlaf [2nd pers. imperf. of pass. v. IV أُخْلِفَ ʾukhlifa] (of a promise) to be denied, to be broken (20:97) وَإِنَّ لَكَ مَوْعِدًا لَنْ تُخْلَفَهُ and you have a promise you will not be denied.

يَتَخَلَّفُ yatakhallaf [imperf. of v. V, intrans.] to stay behind, to hold back from, to be absent (9:120) مَا كَانَ لأَِهْلِ الْمَدِينَةِ وَمَنْ حَوْلَهُمْ مِنَ الأَعْرَابِ أَنْ يَتَخَلَّفُوا عَنْ رَسُولِ اللَّه it is not proper for the people of Medina and those around them of the desert Arabs to hold back from following the messenger of God.

اخْتَلَفَ ʾikhtalafa [v. VIII, intrans.] 1 to differ, to vary, to be different (8:42) وَلَوْ تَوَاعَدْتُمْ لاَخْتَلَفْتُمْ فِى الْمِيعَادِ had you promised each other [to fight/meet], you would surely have differed [in keeping] the appointment 2 to dispute (with), to disagree (with), to differ in opinion (on) (42:10) وَمَا اخْتَلَفْتُمْ فِيهِ مِنْ شَيْءٍ فَحُكْمُهُ إِلَى اللَّهِ whatever you may differ about is for God to judge.

اخْتُلِفَ ʾikhtulifa [pass. of v. VIII] to be disputed (11:110) وَلَقَدْ ءَاتَيْنَا مُوسَى الْكِتَابَ فَاخْتُلِفَ فِيهِ We gave Moses the Book, but it was differed about [lit. differences were expressed in respect to it].

اسْتَخْلَفَ ʾistakhlafa [v. X, trans.] to appoint as successor, to cause to follow (24:55) ِلَيَسْتَخْلِفَنَّهُمْ فِى الأَرْضِ كَمَا اسْتَخْلَفَ الَّذِينَ مِنْ قَبْلِهِمْ He will certainly make them successors in the land, as He made those before them successors.

خَلْفٌ khalf I [n.] 1 succeeding generation, successors (7:169) فَخَلَفَ مِنْ بَعْدِهِمْ خَلْفٌ وَرِثُوا الْكِتَابَ يَأْخُذُونَ عَرَضَ هَذَا الأَدْنَى so a generation succeeded them who inherited the Book, choosing the fleeting gains of this lower [world] 2 behind, rear *(41:42) لاَ يَأْتِيهِ الْبَاطِلُ مِنْ بَيْنِ يَدَيْهِ وَلاَ مِنْ خَلْفِهِ falsehood cannot approach it from any direction [lit. before or from behind] II [adverb of place] at the back, in the rear, behind (19:64) لَهُ مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِينَا وَمَا خَلْفَنَا to Him belongs what is before us and what is behind us.

خَالِفُون khālifūn [pl. of act. part. خَالِفٌ khālif] those who stay behind after others have gone to carry out a task, particularly war (9:83) إِنَّكُمْ رَضِيتُمْ بِالْقُعُودِ أَوَّلَ مَرَّةٍ فَاقْعُدُوا مَعَ الْخَالِفِينَ you chose to sit at home the first time, so stay [now] with those who stay behind.

خِلاَفٌ khilāf [v. n.] being contrary, being in opposition; being behind, staying behind (9:81) فَرِحَ الْمُخَلَّفُونَ بِمَقْعَدِهِمْ خِلاَفَ رَسُولِ اللَّهِ those who were left behind [and did not join in the Campaign of Tabūk] rejoiced at their staying behind the messenger of God; *(7:124) لأَُقَطِّعَنَّ أَيْدِيَكُمْ وَأَرْجُلَكُمْ مِنْ خِلاَفٍ I will cut off your hands and feet upon alternate sides [on opposite sides].

خِلْفَةٌ khilfatan [v. n./n.] (the act of) coming one after the other, replacing one another; being different, alternating (25:62) وَهُوَ الَّذِي جَعَلَ اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ خِلْفَةً He it is who made the night and day replace one another (or, come one after the other).

خَوَالِفُ khawālif [pl. of n. خَالِفَةٌ khālifatun, also said to be pl. of act. part. خَالِفٌ khālif] ones staying behind; women (because they stay at home when men go forth to war); the laggards, contrary ones (9:93) إِنَّمَا السَّبِيلُ عَلَى الَّذِينَ يَسْتَأْذِنُونَكَ وَهُمْ أَغْنِيَاءُ رَضُوا بِأَنْ يَكُونُوا مَعَ الْخَوَالِفِ censure, however, is for those who sought your permission and, though rich, were pleased to be with the laggards (or, [at home] with the women).

خَلِيفَةٌ khalıfatun [n., pl. خَلاَئِفُ khalāʾif and خُلَفَاءٌ khulafāʾ] 1 representative, (2:30) وَإِذْ قَالَ رَبُّكَ لِلْمَلاَئِكَةِ إِنِّي جَاعِلٌ فِى الأَرْضِ خَلِيفَةً when your Lord told the angels, ‘I am putting a representative on earth’ 2 successor, heir (7:74) وَاذْكُرُوا إِذْ جَعَلَكُمْ خُلَفَاءَ مِنْ بَعْدِ عَادٍ وَبَوَّأَكُمْ فِى الأَرْضِ and remember when He made you heirs after ʿād and established you in the land.

مُخَلَّفُون mukhallafūn [pl. of pass. part. مُخَلَّفٌ mukhallaf] one who is left behind (48:16) قُلْ لِلْمُخَلَّفِينَ مِنَ الأَعْرَابِ tell the desert Arabs who were left behind.

مُخْلِفٌ mukhlif [act. part.] one who does not keep a promise, one who goes back on a promise (14:47) فَلاَ تَحْسَبَنَّ اللَّهَ مُخْلِفَ وَعْدِهِ رُسُلَهُ so do not think that God will break His promise to His messengers.

اخْتِلاَفٌ ʾikhtilāf [v. n.] 1 difference (between), diversity, succession (10:6) إِنَّ فِى اخْتِلاَفِ اللَّيْلِ وَالنَّهَارِ وَمَا خَلَقَ اللَّهُ فِى السَّمَوَاتِ وَالأَرْضِ لآَيَاتٍ لِقَوْمٍ يَتَّقُونَ in the succession of night and day, and in what God created in the heavens and earth, there truly are signs for those who are mindful [of God] 2 discrepancy, contradiction, inconsistency (4:82) أَفَلاَ يَتَدَبَّرُونَ الْقُرْءَانَ وَلَوْ كَانَ مِنْ عِنْدِ غَيْرِ اللَّهِ لَوَجَدُوا فِيهِ اخْتِلاَفًا كَثِيرًا will they not ponder on the Qur’an?, if it had been from anyone other than God, they would surely have found much inconsistency in it.

مُخْتَلِفٌ mukhtalif [quasi‐act. part.; pl. مُخْتَلِفُون mukhtalifūn] 1 different from [one another]; disputing with one another (11:118) وَلَوْ شَاءَ رَبُّكَ لَجَعَلَ النَّاسَ أُمَّةً وَاحِدَةً وَلاَ يَزَالُونَ مُخْتَلِفِينَ had your Lord willed, He would have made humankind one nation, but they continue to be different 2 varying, diverse (16:69) يَخْرُجُ مِنْ بُطُونِهَا شَرَابٌ مُخْتَلِفٌ أَلْوَانُهُ فِيهِ شِفَاءٌ لِلنَّاسِ from their bellies comes forth a drink of diverse hues in which there is healing for humankind 3 opposing, contradictory (51:8) إِنَّكُمْ لَفِي قَوْلٍ مُخْتَلِفٍ you are of opposing opinions.

مُسْتَخْلَفُون mustakhlafūn [pl. of pass. part. مُسْتَخْلَفٌ mustakhlaf] those who are appointed as successors, inheritors, heirs, or trustees (57:7) وَأَنْفِقُوا مِمَّا جَعَلَكُمْ مُسْتَخْلَفِينَ فِيهِ and give out of that over which He has made you successors.

Badawi, Elsaid M. and Abdel Haleem, Muhammad, “خ/ل/ف   kh–l–f”, in: Dictionary of Qurʾanic Usage, Edited by: Elsaid M. Badawi, Muhammad Abdel Haleem. Consulted online on 05 January 2017